Tips
Links
- set a schedule for regular study. Language learning happens bit by bit, so the best strategy is to plan some time for study every day. (Waiting until the last moment before a test, then cramming, of course, tends not to work very well in the long run.)
- take note of what works for you. If you find that a particular kind of activity seems to help you, for example if you remember vocabulary better when you try to use it in a sentence, try to continue using that strategy whenever you can.
- take note of what works for others. Talk to classmates or other fellow learners and your teacher about how they learn, and what suggestions they may have for you.
- keep track of your learning, perhaps by writing a diary or keeping notes on your successes and failures
- in class, pay attention to interactions between the other people present. Try not to tune out what is going on when you are not talking.
- in class, use the opportunities you have to practice the language in meaningful ways. Take an active role in classroom discussions, whether they occur in small groups or with the class as a whole.
1) how grammar works. You may not be able to talk about all the rules of grammar, but as a speaker of English you can tell what functions words have in sentences. Lewis Carroll took advantage of this knowledge when he wrote The Jabberwocky:
"Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe...
You can tell, for example, that "slithy"describes the "toves," whatever they are, and that "gyre" and "gimble" are words referring to actions, and that these actions could be described in different ways: "They gyred." "They gimbled." "They used to gyre, but now they are gimbling." and so forth.
2) a lot of words. Your knowledge of vocabulary can help you to figure out the meanings of many foreign language words. (Add a list of cognates from French, Spanish and German + and exercise to identify their meanings.)
3) facts about the world. You know, for example, that dinosaurs are extinct, so that a text about living dinosaurs would either be referring to the past or to a fictitious situation.
4) how certain predictable situations normally occur. When you go to a restaurant, you expect that certain events will take place and others will not. You will receive food and pay for it, but no one will wash your hair or manucure your fingernails. You can use this knowledge of universal "scripts" for predictable events in order to fill in your understanding of the language.
[This is the answer to the question.]
Classrooms provide a sheltered environment where the language used is tailored for your level of achievement. Most contemporary language classrooms use a broad array of authentic materials and include a range of learning activities to increase your proficiency in using the language.
Drawbacks:
Limited speaking practice: The larger the class, the fewer the opportunities you will have to interact one-to-one with the teacher. One study estimated that in traditional classroom arrangements, where the teacher interacts with a whole group of about 30 students, an individual student can get less that one hour of speaking practice per year!
Limited social roles: "I studied Spanish for three years, but when I went to Spain I couldn't even order a pizza!" Many learners express frustration with the outcome of classroom learning because they have not thought carefully about the kinds of language practice they get in classrooms. Ever since you were a small child, when you first went to school, you have been learning rules about how to behave in classrooms: When you are in a traditional classroom, you usually behave and use language in the role of "student." Classroom language use is very predictable, with the teacher initiating conversations and selecting the topic for discussion, the students responding and the teacher evaluating what the student has said:
Teacher: Larry, what time is it?
Larry: It is two thirty.
Teacher: Well done!
When you only participate in this kind of conversation (which would be rather unusual, anywhere but in the classroom), you don't get much practice doing anything other than responding to the teacher: you don't get to pick your own topics, you don't get to start up a conversation, and you don't get to fix your own speaking problems (the teacher does that for you). To really be able to use a language, you have to practice all these skills. When you go to a cafe in Spain, the waiter is not going to treat you with kid gloves, as if you were a student:
Waiter: May I take your order, Sir?
Larry: I would like a pizza, if you please.
Waiter: Very good!
Classroom language practice also emphasizes correct usage, often in Complete Sentences. However, if you think about how REAL language use occurs, for example in ordering pizza, it might go something like this:
Worker: Next!
Larry: You got any pepperoni?
Worker: Yup.
Larry: I'll take a slice.
(a few minutes later)
Worker: Hey Slice! You want sumthin ta drink?
Larry: Small coke.
Many language teachers understand the drawbacks of classroom language learning, and try to arrange learning activities that help to increase speaking practice and vary social roles for the students. It is important to take advantage of these opportunities, but classroom language learning can never completely take the place of actually being in the many social roles you play as an adult.
Drawbacks: Unless you can get some professional guidance, it can be difficult to make good judgments about appropriate materials. The materials on the market vary in quality, and often make unrealistic promises as part of their marketing plan. Self-directed study requires a high level of discipline because you do not enjoy the benefit of an imposed schedule. It is also difficult to find opportunities for interactive practice, although the resources available on the Internet can help (see the resources listed under Technology and language learning, or the language-specific resources listed on individual language pages).
Drawbacks: There are several reasons why study abroad does not always produce the desired result of advanced language competence: Some students find it is easier to take refuge among speakers of their native language than to sustain their effort to learn the language. Others are so attracted to the "real life" experiences available to them that they become disenchanted with classroom learning and fail to take adequate advantage of language lessons given during the study abroad program. Still others find that differences in social norms seem insurmountable, or that they restrict their access to opportunities for language learning. Research on language development during study abroad has indicated that some students, in particular young women, need to pay particular attention to the conventions of social language use in order to avoid frustration and misunderstandings that limit their access to the language. (If you are a woman, see Gidget Goes To Paris) It is very important to prepare for study abroad by learning as much as you can about the customs and social practices of the place you will be visiting. If you are moving from a rural environment to a large city, you need to be prepared to adjust your behavior accordingly. To develop your language competence, you will want to form relationships with the native speakers you meet, relationships that must be based on mutual respect and awareness of cultural differences. Study abroad can be the most exhilarating but also the most demanding learning experience of your life: it is best to be aware of possible pitfalls so that you can try to avoid them.
The Intercultural Press is a publisher specializing in books and other materials on cultural differences and the challenges of living abroad. Suggested materials for the study of particular cultures are available on the Virtual Language Center's individual language web pages.
Here are some Internet based resources for locating and comparing study abroad programs:
National Registration Center for Study Abroad
Worldwide Classroom Library of International Programs
drill and practice of grammar and vocabulary
reading and writing assistance
listening practice
learning with interactive video
The Internet offers a broad array of opportunities for language learners, including information about languages, various kinds of on-line language lessons, and for a for interactive language use, such as in listservs, chat rooms or in MOOs and MUDs.
Drawbacks: Variation in quality. Unlike materials published in the usual way, many Internet based resources don't go through review and correction before they are made available. They can vary in quality! Too much authenticity. Let's say you are interacting with native speakers of your language in a chat room, and somebody goes on a flaming rampage. You will be exposed to language that might be just a little bit too real. You should be aware that Internet for a are not protected language environments, and you might inadvertently pick up some expressions or words that are not appropriate for your own use as a non-native speaker.
Interactive practice: Although you can use technological tools for interactive practice in writing, it is still relatively difficult to practice face-to-face conversation using computer technology as the medium for talk. This will change, perhaps in the near future, as solutions for distance learning begin to include more tools for speech. Use materials wisely. Language learning materials offer many benefits, but they can also be used inappropriately
- Textbook authors have different philosophies about what language is and how language is learned. Not all textbooks are alike. For example, some take a "drill and kill" approach to language learning, while others try to include exercises that are intended to be meaningful. - Textbooks can include inaccuracies. As an extreme example, take The New Guide of the Conversation in Portuguese and English, published in 1883 by Jose da Fonesca. Fonesca wrote this book because, in his words: "A choice of familiar dialogues, and despoiled phrases, it was missing yet to studious Portuguese and Brazilian youth..." (Preface). Dialogue 26, "The Fishing," goes like this:
That pond it seems me many multiplied of fishes. Let us amuse rather to the fishing.
I do like-it too much.
Here, there is a wand and some hooks. Silence! there is a superb perch. Give me quick the rod! Ah! There it is, it is a lamprey. You mistake you, it is a frog! dip again it in the water. Perhaps I will do best to fish with the leap.Try it! I desire that you may be more happy and more skilful who ascertain fisher, what have fished all day without to can take nothing.
Fonesca also supplies his hapless reader with convenient lists of vocabulary, such as this list of "Ages:"
The infancy. Thi in'-fane-ci.
The puerility. Thi piu-i-ri-liti
The youth. Thi yuth.
The adolescence. Thi ado-les-cenn-ce.
The virility. Thi vairil'-i-ti.
The maturity. Thi ma-tiu-ri-ti.
The decay. Thi di-ke.
The oldness Thi old-nesse.
The age decrepit. Thi edje di krep'ite.
Let's we think ourselves immune from this kind of absurdity in today's language learning material, we have only to consider that many commercially available phrase books still do their best and quite inaccurate job of portraying "everyday" language and its pronunciation.
- Textbooks are artifacts of the cultures that produce them. This means that if you are using a textbook published in the United States to learn a foreign language, that textbook will present only those aspects of the foreign culture that can be presented in a way that is acceptable to Americans. Everything else will be left out.
- Textbooks present purified versions of the language. Remember that languages are used in many different settings, so they come in many different varieties. Textbooks authors have to select the language they feel will be the most appropriate and efficient for you to learn. Usually this means that they stick to the middle of the road where language variety is concerned, and only present language that best approximates whatever standard is recognized as "best" by native speakers, even if in reality native speakers rarely speak that "true" version of their language. Consider again the range of ways in which the "same" thing can be said: automobile / motor vehicle/ car/ lemon / jalopy / scrape / heap/ crate.
A good textbook will probably teach you to use the word "automobile" or "car," and will not include the many other possibilities for talking about this kind of machine. Often, the variety that is presented in textbooks is the written variety, one that is respected and admired but not always spoken. In a textbook, you will find the standard "best case scenario" for polite language use: you will probably not find all the other ways that people actually talk. As a non-native speaker, however, at least in the beginning, you are usually much better off speaking like a book than making inappropriate use of an informal word, phrase or grammatical form.
Skillful use of a foreign language dictionary is something that you may have to learn, and you may need some guidance on how dictionaries are organized for your language. The following guidelines may help: Use the dictionary to verify spelling or meaning. A dictionary can be very helpful when you are writing or preparing a formal speech. When you are reading, however, before you check every unknown word in the dictionary, you should first try to use strategies to determine word meaning from context or from a cognate (word with a shared form and history) in a language you know well (see Learning To Read).
Beware the one-to-one correspondence between words. Foreign languages define words with reference to the rest of their own words, not to the ones you know in English. One-to-one correspondences tend to hold up fairly well for more technical words:
thermometer = thermometre (French)
but many commonly used words may not have an exact equivalent in the language you are studying, because they are idiomatic or refer to the way things are done in particular places. The word "cheerleader," for example, is difficult to translate into many languages with just one word, because cheerleading is not something that happens everywhere in the world in exactly the same way it does on American school campuses. If you think you may be trying to express a culturally-specific idea, you may be better off writing a description than looking for a word.
Similarly, if you are trying to translate an idiomatic expression, you should think first about what the expression means rather than the words it is made of. One study (Lantolf, Labarca & den Tuinder 1985) looked at the differences between the ways beginning and advanced students used the dictionary. To translate the sentence, "He is in the doghouse." from English to Spanish, for example, beginning learners tended to try to do it word-for-word, writing "Esta en casa de perro" (He is in the house of dog.), which means, literally, that he is in some dog's house. Advanced learners, however, tended use a better strategy, thinking first about what "in the doghouse" means in English, then translating that: "Esta in mala situation." (He is in a bad situation.) Bad word-for-word translations are a source of much hilarity (link to bloopers),but you probably want to avoid them if you can!
Reference: Lantolf, J.P., A.Labarca & J. den Tuinder. 1985. Strategies for accessing bilingual dictionaries: A question of regulation. Hispania 68: 858-64.Select words or meanings from the dictionary strategically. If you find more than one definition for the word you are looking up, you will have to try to decide which one is the one you need. If you are reading, you should go back to the text to verify if the candidate meaning makes sense. In writing, this is how many learners get into trouble at the beginning, because they piece together sentences from dictionary definitions without taking into account the grammatical form of the word or the problems with one-to-one correspondences between languages. When Jose da Fonesca wrote, "It seems me that the corn does push already," we can be fairly sure that he did it with a dictionary. At minimum, you should try to be sure that you are using the right part of speech: a noun if you need a noun, or a verb if you need a verb, and so on. If your dictionary provides information about word's connections to levels of language (formal or informal), you can also use it to estimate whether or not a word you choose is really appropriate for your message.
(This would be good place to stick in the Perils of Automatic Translation) Learn how dictionaries are organized in the language you are studying. If your language uses endings, only one form for a word will be given in the dictionary: verbs will be listed in the infinitive, and nouns in the nominative case. Some languages have different alphabets from the English one, or different orders within the alphabet. If you are studying a language, such a Chinese, that uses written characters, you will need to learn how dictionaries are organized for that language before you can use them effectively. Reference grammars. There may be times when the textbook you are using does not explain a structure you need to know, or does not explain it clearly or adequately for you. There may be other times, for example when you are writing, when you know you need to use a particular form, but can't quite recall exactly how. At such times, it can be helpful to have a good reference grammar on hand. The reference grammar is a also handy tool for self-monitoring as you learn. As your ability grows, you can use the reference grammar as a measure of what you know and may still need to learn; in fact, a reference grammar may be the single most helpful tool for advanced learners. Most reference grammars are organized by grammatical topic, with sections pertaining to nouns, verb conjugations, adjective formation and so on. This makes it easy for you to look up whatever rule or form you need, and see examples of how it is used.
Grammar reference material for many languages is available on the Web at A Web of On-line Grammars, and Morphology, from Robert Beard at Bucknell
TV 5 (French) (add the others if possible) Foreign language feature films, available in Meyer Library and in the Language Media Center, are also excellent vehicles for comprehension practice and for learning about the cultures of the language you are studying. If they are subtitled, you may rely on the translation provided, but you will quickly discover that the subtitles only approximate what is being said in the film.
A Communications Technology Module for the Foreign Language Methods Class written for teachers, provides an excellent and accessible general overview of the communications tools available.
With Internet Foreign Language Partners, or the International Tandem E-Mail Network you can find a foreign language keypal who shares your interests to practice with. To search for recommended resources for your language, check the Virtual Language Center's language specific pages. The following pages offer resources for many languages, some of which are not commonly taught:
The Human Languages Page offers a comprehensive catalogue of Internet-based language resources, from "Aboriginal Languages" to "Yiklamu."
Speakeasy Foreign Language and Culture also links to a range of pages for a range of languages
Language Learning Resources on the World Wide Web from Georgetown University provides links to numerous resources on language and culture for learners and teachers.
- How to use a dictionary
- Online dictionary : http://www.wordreference.com/
- Set realistic and attainable goals
- Take an active approach to learning
- Use what you already know
- Strive for meaning in language-related activities
- Pay attention to the forms of the language
- Understand the benefits and drawbacks of the environments where you are learning
Set realistic and attainable goals
If you know in advance what you would like to be able to do in the language you are studying, you can select courses or adapt your approach accordingly. If you are mainly interested in reading, for example, you will want to spend less time perfecting your pronunciation. If you are interested in everyday communication, you will be able to translate classroom activities into steps toward that goal : instead of seeing a dialogue about dining out as a mere dialogue, you will see it as a chance to develop your functional ability to order food in a restaurant. Remember to keep your goals realistic: Language learning is a complex and long-term investment, and you can expect to go through stages in your ability to use the language that change as you progress.Back to Top
Take an active approach to learning
Don't expect to learn language "by osmosis." Only you can truly take charge of your learning. You are the most important participant in language learning and you have to approach the task actively. This does not necessarily mean that you have to be talking all the time-- listening or reading for meaning and trying to identify new features of the language are also important. It may help you to:- set a schedule for regular study. Language learning happens bit by bit, so the best strategy is to plan some time for study every day. (Waiting until the last moment before a test, then cramming, of course, tends not to work very well in the long run.)
- take note of what works for you. If you find that a particular kind of activity seems to help you, for example if you remember vocabulary better when you try to use it in a sentence, try to continue using that strategy whenever you can.
- take note of what works for others. Talk to classmates or other fellow learners and your teacher about how they learn, and what suggestions they may have for you.
- keep track of your learning, perhaps by writing a diary or keeping notes on your successes and failures
- in class, pay attention to interactions between the other people present. Try not to tune out what is going on when you are not talking.
- in class, use the opportunities you have to practice the language in meaningful ways. Take an active role in classroom discussions, whether they occur in small groups or with the class as a whole.
Back to Top
Use what you already know
You should not be reluctant to use all the knowledge you already possess when learning a language. Among the things you know are:1) how grammar works. You may not be able to talk about all the rules of grammar, but as a speaker of English you can tell what functions words have in sentences. Lewis Carroll took advantage of this knowledge when he wrote The Jabberwocky:
"Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe...
You can tell, for example, that "slithy"describes the "toves," whatever they are, and that "gyre" and "gimble" are words referring to actions, and that these actions could be described in different ways: "They gyred." "They gimbled." "They used to gyre, but now they are gimbling." and so forth.
2) a lot of words. Your knowledge of vocabulary can help you to figure out the meanings of many foreign language words. (Add a list of cognates from French, Spanish and German + and exercise to identify their meanings.)
3) facts about the world. You know, for example, that dinosaurs are extinct, so that a text about living dinosaurs would either be referring to the past or to a fictitious situation.
4) how certain predictable situations normally occur. When you go to a restaurant, you expect that certain events will take place and others will not. You will receive food and pay for it, but no one will wash your hair or manucure your fingernails. You can use this knowledge of universal "scripts" for predictable events in order to fill in your understanding of the language.
Back to Top
Strive for meaning in language-related activities
To acquire language, you have to participate in meaningful interactions. When people use language, they convey information but they also provide social meaning about how they feel in a particular situation, or how they evaluate what they are saying (see the Sociolinguistics Test). As a language learner it is important to try to understand both kinds of meaning. It can help you learn to be appropriate in the language if you take note of how language varies depending on the situation, for example how people of different social status say the same thing. Paying attention to nonverbal communication, such as gestures, facial expressions, touching and physical distance, can also help you to understand both social and referential meaning.Back to Top
Pay attention to the forms of the language
Studying grammar and vocabulary will help you, but probably only in an indirect way. This does not mean that you can afford to ignore the forms of the language, only that the best way to learn to use grammar and vocabulary is to experience them in meaningful contexts, while you are focusing primarily on what is being communicated. You will find that your ability to focus on form will increase along with your language ability. In the beginning, it will be relatively difficult to think about what forms of grammar are being used at the same time that you are trying to understand what is being communicated. Practicing grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation will be much easier to do as a separate activity from trying to use what your know in communicative activity. As your proficiency increases, however, it will be ever more appropriate for you to refine your ability by paying attention to the ways that more expert language users manipulate forms, and comparing these with your own use of similar forms.Back to Top
Understand the benefits and drawbacks of the environments where you are learning
[This is the answer to the question.]
Back to Top
Classroom language learning
Benefits:Classrooms provide a sheltered environment where the language used is tailored for your level of achievement. Most contemporary language classrooms use a broad array of authentic materials and include a range of learning activities to increase your proficiency in using the language.
Drawbacks:
Limited speaking practice: The larger the class, the fewer the opportunities you will have to interact one-to-one with the teacher. One study estimated that in traditional classroom arrangements, where the teacher interacts with a whole group of about 30 students, an individual student can get less that one hour of speaking practice per year!
Limited social roles: "I studied Spanish for three years, but when I went to Spain I couldn't even order a pizza!" Many learners express frustration with the outcome of classroom learning because they have not thought carefully about the kinds of language practice they get in classrooms. Ever since you were a small child, when you first went to school, you have been learning rules about how to behave in classrooms: When you are in a traditional classroom, you usually behave and use language in the role of "student." Classroom language use is very predictable, with the teacher initiating conversations and selecting the topic for discussion, the students responding and the teacher evaluating what the student has said:
Teacher: Larry, what time is it?
Larry: It is two thirty.
Teacher: Well done!
When you only participate in this kind of conversation (which would be rather unusual, anywhere but in the classroom), you don't get much practice doing anything other than responding to the teacher: you don't get to pick your own topics, you don't get to start up a conversation, and you don't get to fix your own speaking problems (the teacher does that for you). To really be able to use a language, you have to practice all these skills. When you go to a cafe in Spain, the waiter is not going to treat you with kid gloves, as if you were a student:
Waiter: May I take your order, Sir?
Larry: I would like a pizza, if you please.
Waiter: Very good!
Classroom language practice also emphasizes correct usage, often in Complete Sentences. However, if you think about how REAL language use occurs, for example in ordering pizza, it might go something like this:
Worker: Next!
Larry: You got any pepperoni?
Worker: Yup.
Larry: I'll take a slice.
(a few minutes later)
Worker: Hey Slice! You want sumthin ta drink?
Larry: Small coke.
Many language teachers understand the drawbacks of classroom language learning, and try to arrange learning activities that help to increase speaking practice and vary social roles for the students. It is important to take advantage of these opportunities, but classroom language learning can never completely take the place of actually being in the many social roles you play as an adult.
Back to Top
Self-access
Benefits: Self-directed study can be a good option if you want to learn a language that is not regularly taught in a convenient place for you, or if your schedule does not permit you to join a class. In a self-access course, you make your own goals, set your own schedule and choose your own material.Drawbacks: Unless you can get some professional guidance, it can be difficult to make good judgments about appropriate materials. The materials on the market vary in quality, and often make unrealistic promises as part of their marketing plan. Self-directed study requires a high level of discipline because you do not enjoy the benefit of an imposed schedule. It is also difficult to find opportunities for interactive practice, although the resources available on the Internet can help (see the resources listed under Technology and language learning, or the language-specific resources listed on individual language pages).
Back to Top
Study Abroad
Benefits: Study abroad is an essential component of a program of language study leading to advanced competence. Study abroad can dramatically increase your practice time in the language. When you study abroad, you can be immersed in the foreign language and culture, able to actually play all the social roles that will allow you to develop competence. If you are observant and open-minded, you will learn not only how to speak the language, but also how to act appropriately in many different situations.Drawbacks: There are several reasons why study abroad does not always produce the desired result of advanced language competence: Some students find it is easier to take refuge among speakers of their native language than to sustain their effort to learn the language. Others are so attracted to the "real life" experiences available to them that they become disenchanted with classroom learning and fail to take adequate advantage of language lessons given during the study abroad program. Still others find that differences in social norms seem insurmountable, or that they restrict their access to opportunities for language learning. Research on language development during study abroad has indicated that some students, in particular young women, need to pay particular attention to the conventions of social language use in order to avoid frustration and misunderstandings that limit their access to the language. (If you are a woman, see Gidget Goes To Paris) It is very important to prepare for study abroad by learning as much as you can about the customs and social practices of the place you will be visiting. If you are moving from a rural environment to a large city, you need to be prepared to adjust your behavior accordingly. To develop your language competence, you will want to form relationships with the native speakers you meet, relationships that must be based on mutual respect and awareness of cultural differences. Study abroad can be the most exhilarating but also the most demanding learning experience of your life: it is best to be aware of possible pitfalls so that you can try to avoid them.
The Intercultural Press is a publisher specializing in books and other materials on cultural differences and the challenges of living abroad. Suggested materials for the study of particular cultures are available on the Virtual Language Center's individual language web pages.
Here are some Internet based resources for locating and comparing study abroad programs:
National Registration Center for Study Abroad
Worldwide Classroom Library of International Programs
Back to Top
Technology and language learning
Benefits: Technology offers access to language and language learning in a wide range of formats. Software and other materials are available in the Language Media Center for:drill and practice of grammar and vocabulary
reading and writing assistance
listening practice
learning with interactive video
The Internet offers a broad array of opportunities for language learners, including information about languages, various kinds of on-line language lessons, and for a for interactive language use, such as in listservs, chat rooms or in MOOs and MUDs.
Drawbacks: Variation in quality. Unlike materials published in the usual way, many Internet based resources don't go through review and correction before they are made available. They can vary in quality! Too much authenticity. Let's say you are interacting with native speakers of your language in a chat room, and somebody goes on a flaming rampage. You will be exposed to language that might be just a little bit too real. You should be aware that Internet for a are not protected language environments, and you might inadvertently pick up some expressions or words that are not appropriate for your own use as a non-native speaker.
Interactive practice: Although you can use technological tools for interactive practice in writing, it is still relatively difficult to practice face-to-face conversation using computer technology as the medium for talk. This will change, perhaps in the near future, as solutions for distance learning begin to include more tools for speech. Use materials wisely. Language learning materials offer many benefits, but they can also be used inappropriately
Back to Top
Textbooks
When we think of language learning materials, the first resource that usually comes to mind is the textbook. If you are enrolled in a course for beginning learners, the chances are good that the textbook provides the backbone of the course and will be your main source of information about the language. Textbooks can provide substantial benefits, because they present selected information that has been oriented to the needs of learners, along with suggestions for practice and (usually) an array of ancillary materials like audio or video tapes, CD-ROMs, or associated Websites. Ultimately, though, you will probably not want just one textbook to be the only source you use to learn the language. You should know that:- Textbook authors have different philosophies about what language is and how language is learned. Not all textbooks are alike. For example, some take a "drill and kill" approach to language learning, while others try to include exercises that are intended to be meaningful. - Textbooks can include inaccuracies. As an extreme example, take The New Guide of the Conversation in Portuguese and English, published in 1883 by Jose da Fonesca. Fonesca wrote this book because, in his words: "A choice of familiar dialogues, and despoiled phrases, it was missing yet to studious Portuguese and Brazilian youth..." (Preface). Dialogue 26, "The Fishing," goes like this:
That pond it seems me many multiplied of fishes. Let us amuse rather to the fishing.
I do like-it too much.
Here, there is a wand and some hooks. Silence! there is a superb perch. Give me quick the rod! Ah! There it is, it is a lamprey. You mistake you, it is a frog! dip again it in the water. Perhaps I will do best to fish with the leap.Try it! I desire that you may be more happy and more skilful who ascertain fisher, what have fished all day without to can take nothing.
Fonesca also supplies his hapless reader with convenient lists of vocabulary, such as this list of "Ages:"
The infancy. Thi in'-fane-ci.
The puerility. Thi piu-i-ri-liti
The youth. Thi yuth.
The adolescence. Thi ado-les-cenn-ce.
The virility. Thi vairil'-i-ti.
The maturity. Thi ma-tiu-ri-ti.
The decay. Thi di-ke.
The oldness Thi old-nesse.
The age decrepit. Thi edje di krep'ite.
Let's we think ourselves immune from this kind of absurdity in today's language learning material, we have only to consider that many commercially available phrase books still do their best and quite inaccurate job of portraying "everyday" language and its pronunciation.
- Textbooks are artifacts of the cultures that produce them. This means that if you are using a textbook published in the United States to learn a foreign language, that textbook will present only those aspects of the foreign culture that can be presented in a way that is acceptable to Americans. Everything else will be left out.
- Textbooks present purified versions of the language. Remember that languages are used in many different settings, so they come in many different varieties. Textbooks authors have to select the language they feel will be the most appropriate and efficient for you to learn. Usually this means that they stick to the middle of the road where language variety is concerned, and only present language that best approximates whatever standard is recognized as "best" by native speakers, even if in reality native speakers rarely speak that "true" version of their language. Consider again the range of ways in which the "same" thing can be said: automobile / motor vehicle/ car/ lemon / jalopy / scrape / heap/ crate.
A good textbook will probably teach you to use the word "automobile" or "car," and will not include the many other possibilities for talking about this kind of machine. Often, the variety that is presented in textbooks is the written variety, one that is respected and admired but not always spoken. In a textbook, you will find the standard "best case scenario" for polite language use: you will probably not find all the other ways that people actually talk. As a non-native speaker, however, at least in the beginning, you are usually much better off speaking like a book than making inappropriate use of an informal word, phrase or grammatical form.
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Dictionaries
are made by people (called lexicographers), which means that even though they seem like the Ultimate Authority on the words of the language, they, too, come in many different shapes and sizes, suitable for different needs. Because languages are always changing, even an excellent dictionary becomes partially obsolete as soon as it is published. A good bilingual dictionary can be very helpful for learners at all stages, and advanced learners will probably want to own a monolingual dictionary, too. Other types of dictionaries include: dictionaries of abbreviations, dictionaries of pronunciation, dictionaries of proper names, and specialized dictionaries for particular fields (law, business, medicine and the like.Foreign language dictionaries are also available on the Web, for example via the Web of On-Line Dictionaries from Robert Beard at Bucknell, linked to over 600 dictionaries for over 150 languages:Skillful use of a foreign language dictionary is something that you may have to learn, and you may need some guidance on how dictionaries are organized for your language. The following guidelines may help: Use the dictionary to verify spelling or meaning. A dictionary can be very helpful when you are writing or preparing a formal speech. When you are reading, however, before you check every unknown word in the dictionary, you should first try to use strategies to determine word meaning from context or from a cognate (word with a shared form and history) in a language you know well (see Learning To Read).
Beware the one-to-one correspondence between words. Foreign languages define words with reference to the rest of their own words, not to the ones you know in English. One-to-one correspondences tend to hold up fairly well for more technical words:
thermometer = thermometre (French)
but many commonly used words may not have an exact equivalent in the language you are studying, because they are idiomatic or refer to the way things are done in particular places. The word "cheerleader," for example, is difficult to translate into many languages with just one word, because cheerleading is not something that happens everywhere in the world in exactly the same way it does on American school campuses. If you think you may be trying to express a culturally-specific idea, you may be better off writing a description than looking for a word.
Similarly, if you are trying to translate an idiomatic expression, you should think first about what the expression means rather than the words it is made of. One study (Lantolf, Labarca & den Tuinder 1985) looked at the differences between the ways beginning and advanced students used the dictionary. To translate the sentence, "He is in the doghouse." from English to Spanish, for example, beginning learners tended to try to do it word-for-word, writing "Esta en casa de perro" (He is in the house of dog.), which means, literally, that he is in some dog's house. Advanced learners, however, tended use a better strategy, thinking first about what "in the doghouse" means in English, then translating that: "Esta in mala situation." (He is in a bad situation.) Bad word-for-word translations are a source of much hilarity (link to bloopers),but you probably want to avoid them if you can!
Reference: Lantolf, J.P., A.Labarca & J. den Tuinder. 1985. Strategies for accessing bilingual dictionaries: A question of regulation. Hispania 68: 858-64.Select words or meanings from the dictionary strategically. If you find more than one definition for the word you are looking up, you will have to try to decide which one is the one you need. If you are reading, you should go back to the text to verify if the candidate meaning makes sense. In writing, this is how many learners get into trouble at the beginning, because they piece together sentences from dictionary definitions without taking into account the grammatical form of the word or the problems with one-to-one correspondences between languages. When Jose da Fonesca wrote, "It seems me that the corn does push already," we can be fairly sure that he did it with a dictionary. At minimum, you should try to be sure that you are using the right part of speech: a noun if you need a noun, or a verb if you need a verb, and so on. If your dictionary provides information about word's connections to levels of language (formal or informal), you can also use it to estimate whether or not a word you choose is really appropriate for your message.
(This would be good place to stick in the Perils of Automatic Translation) Learn how dictionaries are organized in the language you are studying. If your language uses endings, only one form for a word will be given in the dictionary: verbs will be listed in the infinitive, and nouns in the nominative case. Some languages have different alphabets from the English one, or different orders within the alphabet. If you are studying a language, such a Chinese, that uses written characters, you will need to learn how dictionaries are organized for that language before you can use them effectively. Reference grammars. There may be times when the textbook you are using does not explain a structure you need to know, or does not explain it clearly or adequately for you. There may be other times, for example when you are writing, when you know you need to use a particular form, but can't quite recall exactly how. At such times, it can be helpful to have a good reference grammar on hand. The reference grammar is a also handy tool for self-monitoring as you learn. As your ability grows, you can use the reference grammar as a measure of what you know and may still need to learn; in fact, a reference grammar may be the single most helpful tool for advanced learners. Most reference grammars are organized by grammatical topic, with sections pertaining to nouns, verb conjugations, adjective formation and so on. This makes it easy for you to look up whatever rule or form you need, and see examples of how it is used.
Grammar reference material for many languages is available on the Web at A Web of On-line Grammars, and Morphology, from Robert Beard at Bucknell
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Audio and Video
These days, most published language teaching methods come with audiovisual materials on tape or CD-ROM. These materials can vary in quality, but they are usually very helpful in allowing you to hear and see how the language is used. Some materials come with comprehension exercises and /or drills that can effectively supplement the work you do in class. In addition to the textbook material, you may want to consider using other commercially available materials available from the Language Media Center or, if you are interested in having you own, from such distributors as the Agora Language Marketplace. Another useful resource is satellite television, which provides access to all kinds of television shows. The programming guides for the services available in the Language Media Center can be found on the Web.TV 5 (French) (add the others if possible) Foreign language feature films, available in Meyer Library and in the Language Media Center, are also excellent vehicles for comprehension practice and for learning about the cultures of the language you are studying. If they are subtitled, you may rely on the translation provided, but you will quickly discover that the subtitles only approximate what is being said in the film.
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Computer Programs/Internet
The designers of audiovisual language learning materials have become increasing creative as their tools have developed versatility through computer assisted interactivity. Not so long ago most computer programs for language learning were basically "electronic workbooks," doing exactly what paper workbooks did. These kinds of programs still exist and can be very helpful, but now, especially for the more commonly taught languages, there is also a wealth of other kinds of tools, such as: writing assistant software (available for French, Spanish and German) that offers vocabulary and grammar help during the composing process; and interactive video that lets you navigate through the video or other visual material using a computer program. The Internet. You will find many fascinating language learning opportunities on the Internet, from foreign language radio broadcasts to grammar lessons to chat rooms and other interactive for a for language use.A Communications Technology Module for the Foreign Language Methods Class written for teachers, provides an excellent and accessible general overview of the communications tools available.
With Internet Foreign Language Partners, or the International Tandem E-Mail Network you can find a foreign language keypal who shares your interests to practice with. To search for recommended resources for your language, check the Virtual Language Center's language specific pages. The following pages offer resources for many languages, some of which are not commonly taught:
The Human Languages Page offers a comprehensive catalogue of Internet-based language resources, from "Aboriginal Languages" to "Yiklamu."
Speakeasy Foreign Language and Culture also links to a range of pages for a range of languages
Language Learning Resources on the World Wide Web from Georgetown University provides links to numerous resources on language and culture for learners and teachers.
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